Peru

Peru declared its independence from Spanish colonial rule on July 28, 1821, when José de San Martín, an Argentine general and a leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire, proclaimed independence in the city of Lima in the Plaza Mayor. San Martín is known for his involvement in the struggle for independence not only in Peru but also in Argentina and Chile. This declaration marked the beginning of Peru's pathway to becoming a sovereign nation, although the final victory was achieved a few years later. The Spanish continued to resist and battles continued until 1824.

The War of the Pacific began on April 5, 1879, when Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia. The war was primarily fought over control of the mineral-rich Atacama Desert. Bolivia and Chile disputed ownership of the coastal territory, and Peru had a secret treaty of alliance with Bolivia. The war resulted in significant territorial losses for Bolivia and Peru, as Chile occupied the Bolivian coast and the Peruvian province of Tarapacá. The conflict lasted until 1884 and had lasting impacts on the relations between these countries. It also led to Bolivia becoming landlocked, losing its access to the Pacific Ocean.

On July 18, 1919, Augusto B. Leguía became the President of Peru, marking the beginning of his second term and a period known as the 'Oncenio de Leguía' (Eleven-Year Rule). Leguía's presidency was notable for its efforts to modernize the country, through economic growth and infrastructure development, but his government was also characterized by autocratic rule and repression of opposition. His rule ended in 1930 when he was ousted by a military coup. During his presidency, Leguía heavily relied on foreign loans and investments, leading to concerns about foreign control in Peruvian affairs.

The 1941 Peru-Ecuador Border War was a conflict between Peru and Ecuador. It arose from territorial disputes over the Amazon Basin, an area claimed by both countries. The war began in July 1941 and ended with Peru occupying significant portions of disputed territory. The conflict was resolved by the Rio Protocol in 1942, which was brokered by several countries including the United States. This protocol aimed to establish clear boundary lines and maintain peace between the two nations. The boundary established by this agreement would remain a point of contention, contributing to further conflicts later in the 20th century.

On October 3, 1968, army general Juan Velasco Alvarado led a bloodless military coup in Peru that deposed the democratically elected President Fernando Belaúnde Terry. Velasco's government initiated a series of radical and progressive reforms, including agrarian reform, nationalization of key industries, and efforts to integrate marginalized communities into the political and economic life of the nation. His dictatorship, known as the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces, sought to transform Peruvian society and economy, but faced significant economic challenges and resistance from various sectors, leading to his removal by another military leader in 1975.

The Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) insurgency began in Peru on May 18, 1980, with the burning of ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi, Ayacucho as part of their quest to overthrow the Peruvian government and replace it with a peasant revolutionary regime. The Shining Path, a Maoist guerrilla group founded by Abimael Guzmán, waged an armed struggle against the government that would last for the next two decades and result in tens of thousands of deaths. The internal conflict, characterized by severe human rights violations committed by both the insurgents and the state's forces, devastated rural communities and caused significant national trauma.

On April 5, 1992, President Alberto Fujimori of Peru carried out an 'autogolpe' (self-coup), where he dissolved the legislature and assumed full control of the government, stating that the move was necessary to defeat the insurgency of the Shining Path and to implement major reforms. Fujimori's actions led to the suspension of the constitution and concentrated power in the executive, which garnered both domestic and international condemnation. Nevertheless, he justified the coup as necessary to combat terrorism and corruption. Fujimori's regime would go on to capture key leaders of Shining Path, marking a turning point in the insurgency.

On December 17, 1996, the Japanese ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru, was seized by 14 members of the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), who took hundreds of people hostage during a party. The crisis lasted for 126 days, ending on April 22, 1997, when Peruvian armed forces conducted a military operation, codenamed Chavín de Huántar, to rescue the hostages. The successful raid resulted in the liberation of most hostages but ended with the death of one hostage, two commandos, and all 14 rebels. This event was significant in demonstrating the declining influence of guerrilla movements in 1990s Peru.

Alejandro Toledo was inaugurated as President of Peru on July 28, 2001, marking a significant moment as Peru's first democratically elected Indigenous president. Toledo's presidency followed a turbulent political period marked by authoritarianism and corruption under Alberto Fujimori. Toledo, who campaigned on a platform of anti-corruption and economic reform, faced challenges related to social inequality, economic stability, and political tensions, but was credited with various reforms and maintaining democratic rule. His ascent symbolized a shift towards more inclusive political representation in Peru.

The Ica earthquake struck Peru on August 15, 2007, registering a magnitude of 8.0. The quake was centered off the coast of Peru's Ica Region and was felt strongly in the capital city of Lima. It resulted in nearly 600 deaths, thousands of injuries, and extensive destruction of property and infrastructure, particularly in the cities of Pisco, Chincha, and Ica. The earthquake highlighted the challenges Peru faces due to its location in a seismically active area. International aids poured into the affected regions, but the rebuilding process took a significant amount of time, reflecting broader issues of emergency response and disaster preparedness.

On June 5, 2016, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected President of Peru after a highly contested runoff election against Keiko Fujimori, marking a significant moment in Peruvian politics. Kuczynski, a centrist and former World Bank economist, won by a narrow margin, promising economic reforms, combating corruption, and inclusion of marginalized groups. His presidency faced numerous challenges, including political opposition and corruption scandals, which eventually led to his resignation in 2018. Kuczynski's election highlighted persistent issues in Peruvian politics and the growing demands for transparency and reform from the electorate.